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23 March 2010 16:39
To:
. Nadiah Binte Shafiee
Nadiah Binte Shafiee 3102431
Dear .
Your Special Circumstance request for CMNS1290 - This require comments on the required reading and there has to be eleven entries with comment to each entry by other classmates. has been approved.
Your new completion date is 25/03/2010.
Please include a copy of this email when you submit your assignment.
Thursday, March 25, 2010
Tuesday, March 23, 2010
Week 5 & 7
Focus on Asian Public Relations Management
Identify the different cultural issues that apply to the practice of public relations in Asia
Asia is culturally and linguistically diverse.
The excellence and relationship theory are the most relevant theories when discussing the practice of public relations in Asia.
Discuss various aspects of public relations as they apply to different locations
Trade
While trade facilitates the growth of an economy, education, health, telecommunication, political stability and news media are important economic indicators.
The control of news media especially shows how true the claim to being a developed country is. Public relations rely on news media and thus the freedom of news media very much matter to its growth.
Although named as a developed Asian country, Singapore still has much control over their news media and thus limits the growth of its public relations sector. On the other hand, news media is least controlled in Japan while heavily controlled in communist countries like China and North Korea.
Languages
English might be the language of choice for PR practitioners in the West however this is fast changing in Asia where there is a preference for Chinese, Arab or the local language of the country the PR practitioners are working in.
Government Intent
How much say the government has in the public and private sector of the country affects PR practitioners. Asian countries have been loosening their control over these sectors and hence less control of the messages that PR can put out to its publics and facilitates PR growth.
Stakeholders
News media in Asia is considered to be far less important than it is in the West. Important stakeholders in Asia include Western financial bankers and its citizens.
Personal Interaction
Public opinion is the central concern of PR in Asia thus PR practitioners here have to form strategies that work to reel in public concerns.
Week 10
New Media and Public Relations
Understand emerging new media concepts and theories
New Media widens the circle of communication and can incur serious consequences to the organisation. It allows for publics to become more connected to each other transcending countries and continents. This facilitates the exchange of information and messages with regards to an organisation and push for greater transparency and accountability of the organisation. It is the publics word against the organisation and the former is more than often seen as un-bias and trustworthy compared to the latter.
According to Anne Gregory (2004,246), there is 2 school of thoughts that implore on the use of technology.
One school of thought assumes that advancement in technology like a home phone to a mobile phone is simply an extension of a communication channel, there is not much attempt by the publics to use it as a two way communication. Users still stick to the initial intended use which is to communicate with each other instead of using it to communicate with an organisation (Chia 2002, James 2007).
Another school of thought admits that technology has brought huge shift in the balance of power between organisations and publics. This power lies in the control of messages that the organisation have versus what the publics have access to. With new media for example, an organisation can no longer control the dissemination of messages that its key publics receive.
Appreciate the impact of technology on public relations practices
Technology has not changed much of public relations practices as much as it has the profession simply because many practitioners sees it as previously mentioned an extension of communication and has not identified on how to fully utilise it. Many still prefer interpersonal methods of conveying their message across to their publics.
Identify the challenges new media pose for the public relations profession
New media allows for the easy and fast dissemination of information disregarding time zones, geographical locations or resources which has proven to be useful especially to activists. As a result organisations have a hard time to contain messages and issues that activists are probing upon. Any wrong move in response would dearly cost the organisation as activists can easily spread these negative messages through new media and cause a backlash to the issue.
In the case of Web 2.0 or ‘technology that fosters information sharing, collaboration, social networking and relationship building among web users’ (Fitch, K., 2009,342),while there is a potential for dialogue and interaction PR practitioners do not know how to use them to meet their publics need rather than just make it into an ‘isolated feedback and answer’ platform. Karl Herger and Gwyneth Howell (2007) says that this has much to do with the unknown identity of users, limitations in internet access and computer literacy and unequal distribution of control among organisation and their online publics. Also until everyone has access to the computer and most importantly to the internet, we still have to use both new and traditional media.
It has also raised legal and ethical issues of the use of new media by PR practitioners.
Public relations bodies like PRIA and CPIR have turned to providing guidelines on the use of new media because there is a lack of legislation to control it. PR practitioners also have to make sure that their content does not fall short of the expectations, privacy and rights of the global audience. There is also the implementation of the eMarketing code of practice, which governs the content and type of information that organisations send out online.
Ethical issues arise when PR practitioners are not honest in the messages that they put out regarding the organisations that they represent. CIPR suggests that the organisation provide guidelines on how new media should be approached at and used. The question of astroturfing where a group is created in the name of grassroots or community support which it is actually independent of, has also been come across as being unethical as it mislead the public. This is the case where PR practitioners pretend to be representatives of the public to increase support for its clients.
Consider the use of social media to develop opportunities for dialogue and two-way and multi-way communication
Social media is media that allows for greater inclusion and participation of users. Their interactive nature allows them to exchange opinions, information, knowledge and interests and helps to foster and strengthen relations. While it is necessary for PR practitioners to judge how useful the platform of social media that they choose in communicating with their public, it is often difficult to do so. They also find it difficult to connect with their publics although they do use social software sites like blogs, websites, wikis and social networking sites to research on their competitors.
Week 9
Reputation Management
Discuss the relevance of reputation management for organisations
Reputation as a separate entity to public relations or not has often been argued upon by practitioners and academics. The former insists that public relations is concerned with maintaining the reputation of organisation while the latter thinks that reputation is but one of the many factors public relations practitioners has to handle.
British chartered institute of Public Relations (CIPR) says that public relations has the responsibility to uphold an organisations’ reputation while scholars like Fombrun thinks that maintaining relationships has precedence over maintaining reputation (Fombrun & Van Riel 2004).
Understand the role of corporate public relations in contemporary organisations
The role of corporate public relations is to make communities trust the organisation. Communities see corporations for example, as un-trustworthy and money-laundering businesses while at the same time want these very corporations to do public service. It is up to corporate PR to change the perception of these communities to be in their favour.
Explain the importance of stakeholders to the formation of corporate reputation
While there is no one definition for stakeholder, it is basically those who contribute to the organisations’ survival and those whose needs the management should be receptive to.
Clarkson, M. (1995) says that stakeholders might come in the form of:
Shareholders,
Employees
Customers
Suppliers
Governments
Communities
Distinguish between key concepts such as corporate reputation, image, brand, identity and culture
Corporate reputation is defined as ‘a collective assessment of a company’s ability to provide valued outcomes to a representative group of stakeholders’ (Fombrun, Gardberg & Sever 2000, 243). This reputation encompasses primarily that of people, issues and secondary only to the environment. According to Porritt (2005) there are two types of corporate reputation that respondents distinguish; relationship reputation and bottom line reputation. Relationship reputation refers to treatment of publics while bottom line reputation revolves around meeting investors’ and financial markets expectations.
Corporate Image
This is better known as short term reputation or perceptions that hold over a short period of time. Corporate image is the desired outlook that the corporation want the publics to seem them in. This is related largely to symbolic or visual means. Nonetheless it is still the action of the public relations practitioners undertake that make or break their relationships with the public.
Corporate brand and identity
Corporate identity is intertwined with corporate personality. Corporate personality is the organisational identity while corporate identity is concerned with the projection or expression of organisational identity. Corporate identity is not just restricted to visual projection but actually has 3 core elements; communication, behaviour and symbolism.
Communication is what the corporation project themselves as saying to the publics.
Behaviour shows what the corporation really is through its actions.
Symbolism is the visual means by which the corporations identify themselves and make the environment identify them through.
A corporate brand is what the organisation promises its stakeholders which include the very consumers which the product brand is primarily concerned with. Balmer (2003) said that the corporate brand represents the characteristics of corporate identity that the corporation wishes to make known officially, it holds strongly to its promise to its stakeholders and also to its individuality which gives way to increase trust among stakeholder by which they can maintain their corporate reputation.
Explore how proactive issues management can avert a crisis for an organisation
Issues management is a management function that seeks to identify potential threats to the organisation or key publics. It helps PR practitioners understand the issue in relations to the environment and hence prevent it from escalating into a crisis.
Understand the difference between a crisis and an issue
A crisis occurs when an issue that has not been addressed culminates into something serious such that it might affect the survivability of the organisation. An issue on the other hand arises when there is a difference between what the key publics expect of the organisation and what the organisation really do. An issue might be of a positive or negative nature. Issues include raising public awareness for the organisation’s message like environmental concern or the use of child labour.
Understand the role of public relations practitioners during crisis situations
William Benoit (1997) noted that during a crisis, ‘perceptions are more important than reality’. It is up to the PR practitioners to change the perception of the publics in order to protect its corporate reputation.
Identify the types of crises organisations can experience
Thierry Paunchant and Ian Mitroff (1992) explain that there are 2 dimensions to the 5 types of crises, those that arise from human or social actions and those that are technical or economic in nature. The five types of crisis are external economic attacks, external information attacks, megadamage , breaks and psychological.
This table is adopted from Pauchant & Mitroff (1992) model of crisis clusters.
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- Arises from economic /technical actions
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Information Attack | Megadamage
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Explore how each crisis follows a life cycle
Each crisis goes through 5 phases in their life cycle, prodromal, preparation, acute, chronic and lastly resolution (Fink 1986).
As there is a different theme in media coverage in each stage of life cycle, it will also require PR practitioners to give different sets of information at different stages. The life cycle also tells how the organisation respond to the crises and when and what level of disclosure is needed.
Phase 1 Prodomal
This is where any detection of events that could lead to issues. Issues management is crucial here as it prevent issues from escalating into crises. Media also go through the period of identifying potential issues and crisis and then prepare themselves to have coverage of a crisis. These trigger themes are scrutinised by both media and PR practitioners. It is important that PR set out response strategies when media shows any precursor to possible issues and before media makes any reports of a crisis.
Phase 2 Preparation
Organisations should implement strategies to control any message that media might put against them. The core to crisis management is to control the communication between media and the publics. PR practitioners cannot allow the media to take control of messages concerning the organisation and it has to implement immediate crisis strategies to do so. This is especially true during the period of the crisis.
Phase 3 Acute
This is the shortest yet the most crucial time period. Issues will evolve into crises here and causes fiscal, emotional and physical damage to the organisation. Mass media coverage will rave itself over the crisis. PR practitioner need to learn how to handle these extensive probes into the crisis and the organisation and appease its stakeholders.
Phase 4 Chronic
The after –effects of the crisis is that it will leave the organisation with multiple allegations ranging from criminal to civil charges and also with media constant reference to the crisis. PR practitioners need to show the organisations’ publics that it has learnt from the crisis and handle its messages so that media and the publics will be in their favor.
Week 8
See public relations as a link between organisations and their environment
Public relations enable organisations to communicate effectively with its environment. It strives to maintain and strengthen present ties and also to forge new relations. These composed of both internal and external relations. Internal relations is made up of mainly employee communication which needs to be optimised in order to build a strong foundation of workers who is clear of the organisations’ undertakings and goals and thus able to commit to their work. External relations revolve around how PR department use corporate communication to maintain the organisations’ ties with other organisations and important stakeholders.
Use systems theory to guide your understanding and practical application of public relations
Systems theory provides a framework through which to view organisations and their relationships with the environment (Mehta.A & Xavier.R., 2009). It works like a tower made out of building blocks, each building block matters and if one fails to hold up, their entire tower will fall or sway or it might be because of gush of wind that blows the tower down. In the same way, the organisation is seen as a system where it has to create its goals (as shown by the building blocks) and how these goals helps it to adapt to the environment (as shown by the wind) in order to keep the organisation grounded (or the tower to stand).
Organisational systems rely on the exchange of inputs and outputs between the environment and the organisation (Mehta.A & Xavier.R., 2009). Inputs are resources both material and non-material, which is then transformed into output by the organisation in the form of material like products , services or actions undertaken by the organisation like plant closure or even retrenchment.
We will discuss how open and closed system is applied in public relations:
Closed systems
Closed system is when an organisation strives to work independently of their environment. Their environment is considered exclusive to them or that they are in a league of their own. As a result, their PR practitioners adopt a one way communication which revolves mainly of its own organisation concerns. Their PR practitioners also would only resort to attending to the environment’s concerns in times of crisis, again working in favour of the organisation.
Open systems
Is the opposite of closed systems. It views environment as essential to its organisation. Its’ boundaries are permeable and thus facilitates the exchange of inputs and outputs between the organisation and the environment. PR practitioners in an open system, attempts to address any concerns or changes to its organisation caused by the environment. They also practise two way communications so that any solution or actions undertaken would benefit both itself and the environment such as its key partners or stakeholders. They would also constantly address the people’s concern through their actions.
Define the roles and key areas of focus for the public relations team within an organisation
Public relations have to work with other departments in an organisation. It is not able to stand alone or remain submissive to other departments. It has to hold its place in the dominant coalition which it often competes with departments like the marketing, legal and human resources department.
Public relations and the marketing department
Both of these departments takes a customer focus however PR sees customer as part of an environment while the marketing department depends on consumers. While there has been recent discussions on the marketing-PR mix concept, their different underlying roles still needs to be emphasised upon. PR unlike the marketing department considers non-customer relationships such as relations with employees and stakeholders. However, at times these two departments have to work together such as product launches or times of crisis. Public relations help the marketing department to sell their products and services while the marketing department helps the public relations sector to gain the confidence of customers and non-customers in the environment.
Public relations and the legal department
Legal department and public relations often clash on the grounds of public opinion versus the law. Both parties have to discuss the extent of disclosure that the organisation should give to the public and reach a common consensus. Public relations practitioners have to strengthen their relationship with lawyers and to always discuss how their actions would affect the organisation’s reputation. PR practitioners should also equip themselves with knowledge on law ranging from federal to industrial laws. During times of crisis, the legal department takes the lead on the disclosure of information that the PR department can release.
Public relation and the HR department
HR department and PR must have a stable of strong working relationship in daily operations and especially in times of crisis. PR and HR department work together to minimise the impact that output decisions like restructuring and retrenchment of jobs.
Understand the differences between internal and external publics and audiences
Internal publics and audiences: Employees, consumers, stakeholders, clients, suppliers, regulators
External publics and audiences: Media relations, activists, community members,
Identify and understand how a range of external forces, including conflict, activism, and corporate social responsibility, affect the practice of PR.
Corporate social responsibility or (CSR) is the responsibility that organisations have towards its environment. PR practitioners have to show that the organisations take responsibility of the societal effects that they have created. This encompasses financial, social and ecological factors.
Conflicts are often caused by the activist publics which is ‘a group of two or more individuals who organise to influence another public or publics through action that may include education, compromise, pressure tactics or force’. (Grunig et al., 2002, 446). PR practitioners should be concerned with activists who voices out about organisational decision making. Activist public might work for or against the organisation and it is important that PR practitioners address some of their concerns as they have the potential of bringing down an organisations’ reputation. Their actions often mirror that of public relations tactics especially with the use of technology that PR practitioners have adopted.
The practice of community engagement is part of the boundary spanner role that PR plays. Kim Johnston (2007) noted that it provides a ‘framework for diversity’. This diversity mentioned here is the various effects that is made to the environment. This serves useful to PR practitioners, especially in open systems, which has to constantly engage the environment to ensure the organisation’s relevance. The community needs take precedence over the organisation wants. Considering much of the community interest means that the organisation gain in terms of social capital and thus strengthens their position in the environment.
Week 7 Chapter 9 and Chapter 6
Lecture: Organisational briefing
Chapter 9
Describe how strategy is an integral part of PR practice
Strategy= contested space
Strategy is the core of PR practice. According to Newsom, Turk & Kruckeberg (2007,215) it provides for ‘problem solving strategies for the entire organisation ‘. It is concerned with competitive advantage, building relations, maintaining reputation and to achieve positive working relationships. It is important that PR practitioners realise that their strategy is able to make someone do something about it instead of putting it aside. The contested spaced is where PR practitioners have to compete with their counterparts who are promoting other campaigns and how they would have to fight for the attention of the audience.
Understand the key concepts of how meaning is constructed in a contested space
The first step towards giving a meaning to contested space is when the very competition that PR practitioners have to rally for is what makes up for their success. In different mediums, there might be more or less contested space and it depends on how PR practitioners source out these contested space such as placing their website ads on search engines as oppose of letting other find the website by themselves. This is known as media strategy. Like any other strategy, there are underlying goals that PR practitioners should set beforehand.
The idea of contested space is opposed to the functionalist model which assumes that a transmitted message will automatically cause the intended behaviour in someone. Contested space thinks that there is a change between ‘the intended and unintended audiences, publics and communities’ (James.M.,2009). For example, viewers and unintended viewers of a reality show that is shown online or through TV has their own perceptions of what they have seen.
Contested space does not assume global interpretations but give a chance for the pockets of society like communities and groups, as spoken in previous posts, to air their views and make choices. It is essential that a similar or a pattern of interpretation is found first to determine what group of people it hence represent (Botan & Taylor 2004).
Contested space hence means how people in a certain environment perceive the messages put across to them via different media mediums and set against a multitude of other messages that also compete for their attention.
Describe the major tactics used within public relations and in what settings they might be useful
Tactics= Intentional representation
Target= Intended meaning
Tactics only works when it is appeals to the target audience. This target audience might come in large or limited numbers.
Personal interaction when interacting with a limited number of people
Personal correspondence
Presentations to a small group of guests
Product launches, openings and seminars for employees, clients or potential customers
Meeting
Lobbying activities
Personal conversations via video conferencing or web
These tactics is used when PR practitioners have to spend quality time with their target audience in order to spread their message. A smaller audience would allow more flexibility for any possible changes that might take place and more in-depth information to facilitate the research findings.
When working with a large number of people, personal interaction might be limited or even impossible.
The PR personnel need to find ways to transmit the messages to the masses.
Here are some of the methods
Printed Publication like newspapers and annual calendars.
Sponsorship of important events like concerts or national day
Improve or strengthen relations with media personnel like journalist and broadcasters
Maintaining a blog or show on television
It is important that such efforts are constant and progressive such that it will stay relevant and perceived as credible by the intended audience. This is as opposed to giving out flyer which is often trashed by anyone who receives it.
Also, PR practitioners use symbolic capital to establish and internally represent their clients
This is by visual means
Brand logos
Designs on paper and stationery
Standardisation or inclusion in design of building and offices
Geographical positioning
Vehicles representative of the client company
Inclusion in search engine
As mentioned earlier, sponsorship of events goes a long way in establishing a company. It is important for PR practitioners to keep their corporate and government relations in check. It is best that goals of the client matched that of the sponsored counterparts. This however might take a huge dip in finances if no done properly.
Week 6
Lecture: Media relations
Appreciate the wide range of media available for a campaign
Media release , news tips, letters, emails, web diaries, blogs
Understand the importance of news values and news framing
PR practitioners often work with the print media to publish their story and this would involve cooperating with journalists and meeting their demands. They are otherwise known as gatekeepers, those who access to the information or media. Their angle of putting across a message or news framing, which they have selectively selected based on their own perception would change how the publics would react to the PR practitioners tactics and strategies.
Truth
PR practitioners working with journalists would realise that their information needs to be based on facts however this very much depends on the time of newspaper that these journalists are working for, while keeping to the truth, propaganda and biasness still exists.
Timeliness
It is important that the PR practitioners realise that the media do not want news that is out dated.
Proximity
When news is further away, there tends to be more interest by the public rather than if it is near home. Their vague knowledge of such a place would cause the public to be more curious.
Conflict
In a conflict, more stories would unfold with a conflict and this makes up for more interest by the general public.
Eminence and prominence
Public figures such as ministers and celebrities bring about more coverage of the story,
Consequence and impact
It is more important that the story has an impact on its audience rather than if it’s obsolete.
Personal interest
If the news is put in the context of personal story, people will find it easier to relate to.
Unusual or remarkable
Fit the focus of each medium
News Value depends on which medium the news is put across. Television needs visual treat while radio emphasis on the need of audio dynamics
Pick the right day and hour
Almost similar to timeliness, but more concerned with the recent news trend
Consider the theories and ethical practices of media relations
Theories
Agenda setting theorist
Suggest that media selectively pick certain issues and since audience depend on it for a head start on what to look out for, they tend to become passive receivers of this issues
User and gratification theory
Suggest that people still make use of the options that they have with regards to accepting information given by media and the mediums that they use.
Spiral of silence theory
Has much to do with group dynamics, where the minority tend to follow what the majority thinks. In this case, if it is portrayed that majority of the people is depicted to agree on certain issues, the minority would simply follow suit.
Two step flow theory
Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955) says that the target audience depends on other more significant persons known opinion makers and then relate to media mediums. It is crucial that PR practitioners know who these opinion makers are as they would representative of the audience.
Framing theory
As we talked about earlier, how something is put across as will have an effect on audience acceptance.
Sociological theory and social reality
There lies a distinction between what is really happening in the society and what is made up. Advertisers, PR practitioners and the media often use this to their advantage.
Legal and ethical issue includes defamation, copyright, privacy consideration and also ethical issues addressed in the previous post.
Defamation
As much as there is free speech, it is also important that PR practitioners keep in mind what they say about a subject or a person. There are three types of defamation; defamatory material which involves communication with a third person, defaming a person without naming him or her or when the defamation is transmitted to an audience (Mcleon H & Phillips,R (2009).
Copyright
Authors or inventors have the right to withhold the use of their published material and to sue others who misuse their material or use it without their acknowledgement.
Privacy considerations
It is important that PR practitioners as well as media relations people acknowledge and protect the privacy of their subjects.
Week 5
Lecture: PR strategy and tactics
Lecture: PR strategy and tactics
Demonstrate the rationale for undertaking research
Research is undertaken so that PR practitioners would be aware of public opinion that it works with. It is important as it would tell them of what future steps to take and what to avoid.
Examine Research at diff stages in the PR relations process and the contributions it can make at each stage
PR practitioners are able to undertake qualitative or quantitative research methods. Qualitative research is more concern about the in depth information that it is able to retrieve from a small size sample while quantitative research base itself on statistics on a sizeable amount of sample.
There are also different stages of research.
Research at the input stage mainly requires identifying the problem and understanding the audience in relations to the objectives of the program. This will then determine what strategies or tactics to undertake in the implementation stage. All this will be taken into account at the impact stage which will show the outcome of previous stages and also answers the main question of the research.
Plan research to understand and measure public opinion
Public opinion is the sentiments of the general public on certain matters. PR practitioners need to take into account that public opinion is not based on facts but rather on perceptions. The majority opinion might not account for other pockets of society. Also the reason as to why similar opinion are made might be differ.
A public opinion poll might be drawn up while keeping in check details like age, gender and family background and other socioeconomic factors. The measuring instrument, frequency of testing and awareness of the study results also plays a part in in shaping public opinion.
Issues management
This in relation to how PR practitioners handle a situation such as maintaining its neutrality also keeping communication lines open and keeping any crisis from escalating.
Involve ‘issues scanning’ and ‘issues monitoring’.
Community Engagement
PR practitioners need to recognise the importance of community to organisations like itself and the client that it represents.
Following parts of the model made by the International Association of Public Participation (IAP2) Public Participation Scheme, I will discuss how local PR practitioners might take this approach with Grassroots Resident Corners (GRC)
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(Synott Gae, 2009) Source: The promise’ International Association for Public Participation
Behavioural Change Programs
This is upon consideration on what the current trend of behaviour is and how PR practitioners are able to sway this behaviour in its favour.
Understand and discuss some of the realities and challenges of PR research
Budget
PR research requires a sizeable amount of money and at times, this might not be possible as funding is also crucial for PR activities.
Certain things that PR practitioners can do:
Findings need to be of value to the research. How the information is collected and what role it plays in the research.
It is important to refer to previous researches to back your research.
Using students’ market research as a resource.
Using different media mediums ranging from print media to new media.
Using a smaller sample, but still sizeable enough to prove as qualitative findings.
Do research once
There needs to be a specific focus on where the research will lead to. Also PR needs to know its research options as well as the time frame that it needs to adhere to.
Synnott, Gae (2009) says that ‘the best approach is to recognise its contribution an allocate time and budget for it as a standard part of your project management’.
PR practitioner has to make sure that sample is representative of the total population.
WEEK 4
Public Relations Ethics
Understand the fundamental importance of ethics to the study and application of professional public relations
Ethics is related to social responsibility. PR management have the responsibility to act in favour of the society before the client.
Grunig, James( 2006,165) states that as it is the responsibility of PR practitioners to act as the public’s mouthpiece, it should also have the power to influence the ‘ethics and social responsibility’ of organisations.
Be familiar with the main theoretical approaches to ethical reasoning
Virtue Ethics-
PR should develop a strong sense of personal values. Related to Aristotle’s concept of the ‘golden mean’ as in terms of confidence, the mean or middle of it is that a PR practitioner is able to instil the right amount of confidence in clients so that they do not falter. PR practitioner has to make sure that the client should not be criticised excessively as much as to cause it to lose confidence in PR but at the same time, it should still be reminded of its mistake that has put its reputation at stake.
This is similar to Grunig, James mixed motives approach where it is important to balance both public sentiment and clients ‘ interest.
It involve PR practitioners asking themselves self-reflexive questions how a person with good morals, values would do when faced with a demand by a client in relations to the public and would this action then be commendable (Harrison, 2004,2)
Deontology
PR practitioners has to maintain that it sticks with the requirements of the law, the codes of conduct or ethics of the client and its employees also bodies governing certain activities and media mediums.
Linked to advocacy and rhetorical approach
Advocacy states that emphasis by PR practitioners on certain parts of the message that they were given out while not misleading the public or hiding the facts in the process.
Rhethorical approach is by letting audience independently interpret underlying meaning of words in the message used by PR practitioners.
Deontology law
More than legal compliance this is because the law does not leave room for any ethical behaviour.
Bown, Shannon (2008,162-3) said that law dictates what is permissible to do, while ethics is more concerned about what should be done. These apply much to ethics codes that is lined up by P.R bodies like PRINZ and PRIA.
Consequentialism
PR actions should be based on the outcomes of actions that were undertaken before. This outcome is the overall benefit-harm assessment on the publics.
Is concerned with the ‘Veil of ignorance’ (Rawls, John 1971) where PR practitioners have to decide whether they would have reacted the same way if they had not remained ignorant to certain things.
This ethics theory is coherent with the modern affirmative action such as workplace gender and diversity imbalance.
Confidently present the need for a systematic approach to ethics within the organisation you work with.
Summary of ethics
Based on inclusive and proactive ethics
Inclusive ethics means that P.R cannot impose its own perception of ethics onto parties but rather should strive to include itself in other’s perceptions of ethics.
Tilley 2005- Ethics Pyramid
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/typo3temp/pics/6d0a96060d.jpg
Proactive Ethics
Good ethics = good financial performance. It is mainly concerned with CSR or corporate social responsibility
Orlitzky ,Schmidt and Rynes (2003,403) discussed how this can be analysed through meta analysis, summarising through compilation of data, of CSR in the span of 30 years. They found that corporate virtue and good financial performance goes hand in hand.
Cialdini,Petrova and Goldstein(2004) on the other hand found that unethical action degrades an organisation’s good name but also has costly internal side effects (Tilley,Elspeth)
Week 3
Theoretical Context
Marianne D Sison
Understand the various theoretical contexts that apply to public relations
As explained by Marianne D Sison (2006, 2009), adopted from Trujilo & Toth (1987)
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Understand systems theory, communication theory, public relations theory, rhetorical theory, cultural theory and critical theory
A continuation of the previous entry…
System theory also consists of cybernetics or ‘the study of regulation and control in systems’ (Littlejohn 1999,52), requisite variety meaning to employees with different point of views and boundary spanning which blurs the lines between the organisation and its environment.
Communication theories include information transmission models which basically explains how message is received and then transmitted to the key publics, persuasion theories such as attitude vis-à-vis behaviour change which is to suggest that attitude first needs to change in order to shape behaviour, source credibility, two step and multistep flow which suggests that people have opinion leaders upon which they look up to and emotional appeals.
Coorientation theory discusses how PR practitioners can direct differences in viewpoints to reach a consensus and use it to their advantage, which includes agenda setting where the media sets out to transmit certain messages over others and framing which refers to how a message is put across.
Public relations theory consists of the excellence theory which suggest the standard and function of PR, Grunig & Hunt’s four models which basically explains the type of information that is used and how it is used and the difference between two and one way communication and also how relations of the organisation with the environment and key publics are used, situational theory of practice that explains the basis for and the mode of communication and relationship management that explains how relationship shapes PR.
Rhetorical theory is basically concerned with how symbolic means are used by key publics to construct meaning while cultural theory discusses how cultural differences make an impact to PR and critical theory questions the voice and power balance between the organisation and politics.
Week 1
Define public relations
US perspective- Robert Heath and Coombs (2006,7) That it is a ‘management function’, which means that a firm cannot work or progress without it. It also mentioned ‘collaborative decision’ which meant that it works hand in hand, not independent of its client. Also it asserts that PR management has the responsibility to help its client build stronger relations with whom they are concerned with, while at the same time remaining true to their values, ethics and goals.
UK perspective- Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR) also noted that PR involves maintaining the client’s relationship with the public (Edwards 2006,6). This also includes the relations of PR with its employees (Chia 2006; Huang 2008)
Asian perspective- Is with regards to the Asian culture where authorities have power over the media and information that can or cannot be transmitted to the public. This is especially true of Southeast Asians but developed nations like Korea and Singapore are moving away from this.
Chia, Joy (2009) notes that PR works with both minority and majority in organisations or society, adapts to changing times while remaining true to its creative lines and making a difference to the community.
Demonstrate an understanding of the public relations
PR recognises and highlights what is important to a community. It also strives to create awareness of subjects that the public is not aware of and thus try to mould public opinion.
Understand why theory is important to practice and what theory is important to public relations practice.
It is more important that the theory works (Okay & Okay, 2008, 303) and not whether it is important to practice.
Theory is important because:
it helps us to compare with previous works of PR, whether successful or not, to then help in future PR undertaking.
PR is based on the study of communications and thus the profession requires familiarisation with theories that affects communication.
It helps to build the basis for more guidelines and discoveries in the field of PR.
James Grunig and Todd Hunter’s theory is important. It highlights that PR is ‘more about the communication process than the communication itself’ which suggests that is it the way the PR, the public and the client interact that affects their relations and understanding of one another, rather than the interaction or conversations itself. They also developed the context of press agentry, public information and two way asymmetrical that relates the audience to PR and its client.
Critical theory- Discusses what goes on in an organisation,’ organisational dynamics’.
(KREPS 2008) Related to the system SMART.
Rhetorical perspective-discusses the interactions and conversations between parties involved. Both verbal and non verbal (Heath& Combs 2006)
Systems theory- RELEVANT TO ALL PR PRACTICE. Explains that PR is a social system in which it requires other parties to interact cohesively to work against or for the PR environment (Gregory 2008,51)
Relationship Management and relational theory- Depends heavily on the changing relational dynamics(Chia 2008), it discusses how relations developed, challenged and progress.
Communications Theory- Theaker says of Osgood and Schramm’s model that it is crucial to constantly recheck the contents of PR messages and its feedback before transmitting it (Theaker 2008,22).
Agenda Setting Theory- Media changes how people think by selectively putting out agendas for the public. In this way PR, which constantly work with Media would have the ability to change the mindset of its audience. Something I personally did for a project concerning the effect of media on its audience.
Behavioural Change model- Attempts to change the behaviour of passive audience to that of being actively involved in the messages that is put across by clients. PR also encourages the active audience to increase their participation in spreading this message.
Understand the activities and functions of pr within d varied roles of pr practice and the values that underpin practice.
Internal communication management-
PR manages internal publications which include blogs, bulletin boards, website, preparing position papers for management and speeches.
PR maintains employee relations with HR, keeping them as active participants of the organisations’ undertakings and also keeping good relations with the media.
External communication-
External networking and multifaceted communication, relationship building
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PR spread client’s message by using different media mediums such as the internet and television as platforms and through community involvement projects and meeting with grassroots leaders to highlight its presence and success. It can also promote (CSR) or corporate social responsibility, like Starbucks and its cASlaim to support its many coffee pickers by balancing their wage and coffee price.
Issues management ,reputation and brand management
PR manage concerns of organisations by training them on how to undertake and present themselves in the media such as in times of crisis when there is a dire need to support the client’s image and its management.
Research
Conduct interviews, focus groups and internal audits and implementing strategic plans and reviewing already present programs through methods like S.W.O.T
Public Affairs
P.R creates proposals for new government campaigns and initiatives and also to open up the public to have a say in these proposals.
Investor Relations and financial public relations
PR ensures that important share holders and financial auditors have access to credit services of organisations.
Developing a new pr relations position for the organisation
PR places organisations’ importance to society and developing above mentioned PR functions and components.
Note: Values also plays a crucial role behind actions that PR consultant undertakes.
It is important that in all times that PR works in context of the country, religion and place where it wishes to promote its clients organisation or improve its image. It is important that PR consultants do not become passive receivers of clients or public opinion. It also needs to remain transparent to the client in order to fully understand the clients’ wants and vice versa.
What is shaping the profession?
Stark and Kruekeberg (2003:39) states the society is the most crucial component. PR needs to adapt to the ever changing dynamics of society and thus changes it plans and process according to the developments of society as it ultimately shapes public opinion which PR hopes to influence.
Harris and Fleiser (Chua,Joy, 2009) also notes that global trends also changes the society. This includes how public still do not want much government interference in areas such as health as much as they want authorities to take interest in such matters. It is now also crucial to have transparency between client, practitioners and the public since many companies like Enron and also how the recent financial crisis have affected the public sentiments.
It is also through that the changing dynamics of media such as the implementing of new media and blogs have influenced PR processes and perceptions.
Harris and Fleisher also emphasised on how values and ethical practices is imperative towards PR practice although there are still criticisms on the use of ethical practice which was discussed in my PR debate.
What is the international and local context of the PR relations profession?
International does not equal global. Global is all encompassing while international means PR has to constantly refer to the dynamics of the society in that particular country such as race, religion, taboos and education. This also means that previous economic, social and political environment should still be taken into account although there might be striving towards a complete change of such adherence by countries which is especially true of countries that were previously under the communist regime or are starting to become secular. PR in such countries should strive to work with the country instead of enforcing their opinion onto the public (Chia, Joy 2009). However, it is still important to note that government still influences how PR relations to media for example, and PR has to respect how each government analyse whether the PR messages are befitting of that country. It is also important to note that the difference of ‘collectivistic’ and ‘individualistic’ society. PR has to attain whether the society works as a whole or if some information are better or less accepted in some pockets of society.
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